Timor-Leste, explained.
Political authority is gradually passing from the resistance generation to a younger electorate with very different expectations (Riccardo De Luca/Anadolu via Getty Images)
A depleting Petroleum Fund and an ageing leadership are colliding in Timor-Leste – and patronage networks may fill the gap.
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Timor-Leste’s generational reckoningTimor-Leste’s generational reckoning
What happens before Timor-Leste’s 2027 presidential and 2028 parliamentary elections will shape whether political legitimacy in the country’s next era rests on historic loyalty networks or on policy performance, economic credibility, and public accountability. Three interconnected pressures will shape which way it goes: mounting fiscal pressure, generational political transition, and the growing contest over how political power is financed.
The Petroleum Fund (Opens in new window) supports Timor-Leste’s state budget and pays for almost everything. It stood at $18.6 billion at the end of 2025, but the trajectory is clear. The IMF’s 2025 Article IV consultation (Opens in new window) confirmed that oil and gas production has ceased and that continued large withdrawals would deplete the Fund by the end of the 2030s. The World Bank (Opens in new window) and La’o Hamutuk (Opens in new window) agree: the 2025 budget of approximately $2.6 billion is more than double the sustainable withdrawal rate.
The government’s answer has been Greater Sunrise, the gas field off the south coast, but analysts have flagged (Opens in new window) scenarios (Opens in new window) in which it does not eventuate or delivers too late. Whether this fiscal reality becomes the subject of genuine electoral debate will be one of the clearest indicators of whether Timorese politics is moving toward policy-driven competition.
Tasi Mane – the onshore processing infrastructure designed to support Greater Sunrise’s development – has been the Gusmão government’s response to that pressure. In March 2026, it authorised negotiations with a Chinese state-linked company (Opens in new window) for the Suai Supply Base contract, following a $40.5 million commitment in March 2025. This is consistent with Gusmão’s long-held vision for sovereign development anchored in petroleum infrastructure, but it is also a bet on Chinese investment at precisely the moment his leadership tenure is approaching its end.
Political protection for these networks – whether explicit or tacit – represents the most corrosive form of patronage: where the currency is not contracts or jobs but impunity.
Whether future leaders continue this strategy, revise it, or inherit obligations they cannot easily avoid will shape the country’s economic direction for decades. That uncertainty is intensified by another major transition: the gradual passing of political authority from the resistance generation to a younger electorate with very different expectations – and whether the succession produces a policy mandate or deepens patronage obligations is the central question.
Timor-Leste’s political life has been organised around the people who led the resistance. Prime Minister Xanana Gusmão is 79. President José Ramos-Horta is 76. There are no obvious signs of succession planning, and as Parker Novak observed in a 2023 Lowy Institute Analysis (Opens in new window), personality conflicts within this generation have worked against institution-building for two decades. Parties are therefore more coalitions of loyalty than platforms of policy.
About 65% of Timor-Leste’s population is under 30. These voters did not grow up inside the loyalty structures of the resistance era, and their central concern is jobs, or more precisely, the absence of them. Formal youth labour force participation sits at around 9.2%, among the lowest in the Asia-Pacific region. This tension between gratitude for independence and frustration about economic insecurity is becoming one of the defining political realities of the country’s next generation.
The September 2025 student protests (Opens in new window) offered one signal of what this cohort is capable of: demonstrators forced parliament to reverse $4.2 million in luxury vehicle purchases and scrap lifetime MP pensions. It was a moment of effective civic pressure on visible elite consumption, though not yet a transformation of political culture.
Where the next generation sources its funding will shape whether it incurs patronage-based obligations or can pursue a policy-based mandate. The most entrenched channel is the state itself. Successive governments have used contracts, jobs, and procurement (Opens in new window) to reward loyalty. Moving away from this model would require understanding the state as a vehicle for public services rather than a resource distributed through loyalty – a reorientation of a system in which those expectations have been set for a generation.
Timor-Leste President José Ramos-Horta, left, with Prime Minister Xanana Gusmão, right, and UN Secretary-General António Guterres in Dili, 2024 (Kiara Worth/UN Photo)
The second channel is martial arts groups: informal associations with deep roots in Timorese social life that have become enduring political networks. KHUNTO (Opens in new window), which built its base through these networks and holds five seats in the last parliament, is the clearest example of how organised group membership translates into institutional reach. For many young Timorese, these groups offer belonging, status, and income where the formal economy offers nothing. The more the next generation needs these groups as a power base, the deeper the patronage obligations become and the harder it is to build a mandate around policy rather than loyalty.
The third is transnational organised crime. A UNODC threat alert in September 2025 (Opens in new window) documented infiltration of the Oecusse special economic zone by networks linked to the 14K Triad, and a minister publicly alleged $45 million had been brought in to secure protected operating enclaves. An OCCRP investigation (Opens in new window) found that the AB network’s proposed Dili resort involved individuals later sanctioned by the US Treasury. Political protection for these networks – whether explicit or tacit – represents the most corrosive form of patronage: where the currency is not contracts or jobs but impunity.
These three sources of power reinforce each other: networks implicated in Oecusse are alleged to operate with political protection, state contracts flow through loyalty structures that include martial arts groups, and the same individuals can sit across all three. In a post-conflict society with formal institutions still being built, these networks have been part of how social peace is maintained, not simply problems to be solved. The question is whether democratic accountability can be strengthened alongside them or will be steadily crowded out.
Timorese civil society, media, and policy institutions are best placed to lead an open contest over the future of the country. And development partners have a role too – funding independent analysis, backing civic institutions, and creating space for the kind of debate that patronage networks tend to close down. This should be a core priority, not a marginal addition to existing programs. Australia is Timor-Leste’s largest development partner. And Parseria Foun Ba Era Foun (Opens in new window) – Australia’s new bilateral partnership with Timor-Leste, signed in January 2026 – is one opportunity to do that.
About the authors
Carmeneza dos Santos Monteiro
Carmeneza dos Santos Monteiro is a governance and institutional reform practitioner from Timor-Leste with over two decades of experience in government, civil society, and international development.
Geordie Fung
Geordie Fung is the Director of Analysis & Advising at the Development Intelligence Lab, a Canberra-based think tank focused on international development policy and Australia’s role in the world.
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